Lena Torres
Zimbabwe has been subject to sanctions by the European Union (EU), the United States (US), and the United Kingdom (UK) for nearly 20 years. The sanctions were imposed in response to human rights violations, government corruption, and actions that impede democracy, the rule of law, and respect for human and property rights. While the sanctions are targeted at specific individuals and entities, some argue that they have caused economic hardship for the country as a whole. The impact of the sanctions on Zimbabwe's economy and society is highly debated, with some attributing the country's economic woes to bad debt rather than sanctions. This raises the question: did sanctions destroy Zimbabwe?
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year sanctions were first imposed | 1959 |
| Country that led the movement | Jamaica |
| Year the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 1761 | 1962 |
| Date the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 181 | 7 August 1963 |
| Year the US and Britain discontinued their armaments dealings with South Africa | 1964 |
| Year the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act was imposed | 1986 |
| Year an additional sanctions bill was passed by the House of Representatives | August 1988 |
| Year President Frederik Willem (F.W.) de Klerk recognised the economic unsustainability of the burden of international sanctions | 1990 |
| Year the European Economic Community lifted economic sanctions on South Africa | April 1991 |
| Year South Africa held its first democratic elections | 1994 |
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What You'll Learn
The effectiveness of sanctions in dismantling apartheid
The use of sanctions has been a topic of debate since the end of the Cold War, with some studies indicating at least a mild to moderate effectiveness. The effectiveness of sanctions in dismantling apartheid in South Africa has been a subject of discussion among historians and economists. On the one hand, the international community, including the United Nations, played a significant role in imposing economic sanctions and political isolation on South Africa, which contributed to the end of apartheid. On the other hand, some argue that the impact of these sanctions has been overstated, and the decline of apartheid was primarily due to internal factors within South Africa.
In response to South Africa's apartheid policies, the international community adopted economic sanctions and political isolation as a form of condemnation and pressure. Jamaica was the first country to ban goods from apartheid South Africa in 1959. The United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 1761 in 1962, condemning South African apartheid policies and calling for economic sanctions. By the late 1980s, the United States, the United Kingdom, and 23 other nations had passed laws imposing various trade sanctions on South Africa. The anti-apartheid movement gained momentum, with cities and provinces around the world passing laws forbidding corporations under their jurisdiction from doing business with South African companies.
The economic sanctions placed significant pressure on the South African government, leading to capital flight and a decline in the international exchange rate of the South African rand. This made imports more expensive, causing steep inflation. The arms embargo against South Africa, which was 60% dependent on imported arms, also contributed to the pressure, as the country became 90% self-sufficient and a net arms exporter. The domestic resistance, international pressure, and changing geopolitical dynamics culminated in the eventual dismantling of apartheid and the establishment of a non-racial democracy in South Africa in 1994.
However, some economists and politicians argue that the impact of economic sanctions has been overstated. They suggest that internal factors, such as the effectiveness of the political opposition of the black majority and the growing economic cost of the apartheid system, played a more significant role in ending apartheid. Critics of the sanctions, including British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, argued that disinvestment would cause economic hardships for ordinary black South Africans and worsen the political climate for negotiations. While the sanctions may not have been the primary driver of change, they signaled South Africa's isolation in the international community and contributed to the psychological pressure on the apartheid regime.
In conclusion, while the effectiveness of sanctions in dismantling apartheid in South Africa is debated, they certainly played a role in applying pressure on the apartheid regime. The combination of domestic resistance, international sanctions, and changing geopolitical dynamics ultimately led to the end of apartheid and the establishment of a democratic South Africa. The case of South Africa serves as a reminder that international economic pressure can create the impetus for political change in repressive regimes, even if it is not the sole determining factor.
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The impact of sanctions on the economy
International sanctions against South Africa during the apartheid era are remembered as a successful example of how international economic pressure can lead to political change. The economic sanctions placed significant pressure on the South African government, which ultimately helped end apartheid.
The disinvestment campaign and the repayment of foreign loans led to a considerable capital flight from South Africa. This triggered a sharp decline in the international exchange rate of the South African currency, the rand. The currency devaluation made imports more expensive, causing steep inflation of 12-15% per year. The South African government attempted to restrict the outflow of capital but was unsuccessful.
An arms embargo against South Africa, which had been 60% dependent on imported arms, led the country to become 90% self-sufficient and a net arms exporter. The oil embargo also pushed South Africa towards self-sufficiency, as it developed the world's best process for producing oil from coal.
The economic sanctions also had a profound psychological effect. As one South African banker put it, "In this day and age, there is no such thing as economic self-sufficiency, and we delude ourselves if we think we are different." The sanctions isolated South Africa in the international community and showed that the world opposed apartheid.
However, some critics argued that the sanctions hurt ordinary South Africans while strengthening the government. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher described the sanctions as "the way of poverty, starvation and destroying the hopes of the very people [...] whom you wish to help." Similarly, US President Ronald Reagan vetoed the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, alleging that it would hurt the impoverished black majority and lead to more civil strife. Despite these concerns, the economic sanctions are widely seen as a contributing factor in ending apartheid and bringing about South Africa's first democratic elections in 1994, resulting in Nelson Mandela's election as president.
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The role of divestment campaigns
The divestment campaigns played a crucial role in applying international pressure on South Africa during apartheid. The campaigns aimed to encourage governments and businesses to break fiscal and trading links with South Africa, making it harder for the apartheid regime to sustain itself economically. While post-colonial African countries had already imposed sanctions, the divestment campaign's impact was amplified when major Western nations, including the United States, joined in from the mid-1980s. This shift in Western involvement led to significant capital flight from South Africa, causing a steep decline in the international exchange rate of the South African rand. The economic sanctions triggered inflation, making imports more expensive.
The divestment campaigns were not without controversy. Critics, including British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, argued that sanctions would economically harm ordinary Black South Africans without effectively challenging the apartheid regime. Some economists have questioned the extent of the sanctions' impact, attributing the fall of apartheid to factors such as the effectiveness of the political opposition of the Black majority and the inefficiency of the apartheid system.
However, the psychological effect of the divestment campaigns cannot be understated. They served as a powerful signal of South Africa's isolation within the international community. By 1990, President F. W. de Klerk acknowledged the economic unsustainability of maintaining apartheid under international sanctions. The divestment campaigns, alongside domestic resistance and changing geopolitical dynamics, contributed to the eventual end of apartheid and the establishment of a nonracial democracy in South Africa in 1994.
The success of the anti-apartheid divestment campaigns has been recognised as a model for other social justice movements, including those opposing Israel's West Bank settlements and advocating for climate change. The campaigns demonstrated the potential for international economic pressure to catalyse political change in repressive regimes.
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Criticisms and opposition to sanctions
Critics of the sanctions on South Africa included George Will, Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher, and John Major. Opponents of the sanctions argued that they would have little practical impact on South Africa's apartheid laws and would punish ordinary South Africans while strengthening the government. Reagan stated in a 1986 speech that sanctions would "destroy America's flexibility, discard our diplomatic leverage, and deepen the [South African] crisis".
In a 1985 column, George Will opposed US sanctions on South Africa, arguing that "the current campaigning against South Africa is a fad, a moral Hula Hoop, fun for a while". He also claimed that sanctions would strengthen the apartheid regime and cause carnage when it fell. Thatcher and Major expressed concern about the economic impact of sanctions on ordinary black South Africans, with Thatcher describing sanctions as "the way of poverty, starvation and destroying the hopes of the very people – all of them—whom you wish to help".
Some economists have questioned the impact of sanctions, arguing that other factors, such as the effectiveness of the political opposition of the black majority, the inefficiency and growing economic cost of the apartheid system, and the fall of the Soviet Union, played a more significant role in ending apartheid. A study by University of California economists found that despite the prominence of the boycott, the financial markets' valuations of targeted companies and the South African financial markets themselves were not significantly affected.
Critics also argued that sanctions were counterproductive and set the anti-apartheid struggle back several years. They claimed that US and Western corporations were selling their assets to South African businessmen, enriching them while terminating social responsibility programs that helped black communities. Sanctions were also said to have hurt sectors of the South African economy where blacks made up a large share of the workforce, such as agriculture and food products. Additionally, it was argued that sanctions strengthened apartheid supporters while weakening those seeking reforms.
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The psychological effect of sanctions
International sanctions against South Africa during apartheid were implemented to condemn and pressure the country's government into ending its oppressive policies. While the economic impact of these sanctions is debated, their psychological effects were profound.
The psychological impact of the sanctions on South Africa was significant, signalling the country's isolation from the international community. This isolation was acutely felt, as South Africa had been a close US ally during the Cold War, and was more sensitive to sanctions than other nations such as North Korea or Cuba. The divestment campaign, which saw the withdrawal of foreign investment, contributed to this sense of isolation and further highlighted the country's dependence on international economic relations.
The psychological effects extended beyond the South African government to the population at large. The sanctions, particularly the arms embargo, impacted the country's self-sufficiency, making it more challenging for the apartheid government to maintain its oppressive policies. The economic sanctions also contributed to capital flight, leading to a decline in the international exchange rate of the South African rand. This, in turn, made imports more expensive, causing steep inflation, which had a direct impact on the South African people.
While some critics argued that sanctions would punish ordinary South Africans while strengthening the government, the psychological impact of the sanctions on the government was significant. The economic pressure created an impetus for political change, and in 1990, President F.W. de Klerk acknowledged the economic unsustainability of the sanctions, releasing Nelson Mandela and unbanning the African National Congress (ANC). This set the stage for the country's first democratic elections in 1994, resulting in Mandela's presidency.
In conclusion, while the economic effects of the sanctions on South Africa during apartheid may have been debated, their psychological impact was profound. The sanctions isolated the South African government, highlighted the country's dependence on international relations, and contributed to the impetus for political change. The psychological effects extended beyond the governing party to the population, impacting their daily lives and ultimately playing a role in the fall of the apartheid regime.
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Frequently asked questions
No, sanctions did not destroy South Africa. In fact, they are remembered as a "textbook example" of how international economic pressure can create the impetus for political change in repressive regimes. By the late 1980s, the economic sanctions had begun to take their toll on the South African economy, and the business community and many other sectors of the white population began to articulate the need for the government to enter negotiations with the ANC to resolve the political and economic crises. This eventually led to the dismantling of apartheid and the establishment of a nonracial democracy in South Africa in 1994.
The impact of sanctions on South Africa was mixed. While some sources claim that sanctions had a significant impact on the country's economy and contributed to the eventual decline of the apartheid regime, others argue that their effectiveness has been overstated. For example, a study by University of California economists found that the financial markets' valuations of targeted companies and the South African financial markets themselves were not visibly affected by the boycott. However, it is important to note that the psychological effect of sanctions was profound, signalling the extent of South Africa's isolation in the international community.
A variety of sanctions were imposed on South Africa, including economic sanctions, trade sanctions, and arms embargoes. For example, in 1962, the UN General Assembly requested that its members split political, fiscal, and transportation connections with South Africa. In 1968, it further suggested the deferral of all cultural, didactic, and sporting commerce. From 1964 onwards, the US and Britain discontinued their armaments dealings with South Africa. In 1988, an additional sanctions bill was passed by the US House of Representatives, mandating the withdrawal of all US companies from South Africa and the sale of all investments in South African companies. However, this bill did not become law as it failed to pass the Senate.
